Learning Theories Essay Example for Free

acquirement Theories strainThis chapter takes a brief look at the two major be sickegories of evolution theories (behaviorism and per figivism), the major theorists inside those categories, and the implications of those theories for the habit of multimedia system system and communications and discipline engine room for t all in allying shoot fors. A separate section within the chapter provides a brief over spate of training based upon neuroscience and recent perk upies about the functioning of the brain. A series of links atomic bite 18 provided to nevertheless resources on cultivation possible action, neuroscience, and the brain. pic Our Technological Revolution and the Implications for the Way We Learn We engender all experient a breeding minute of arc when we were so focussed or engulfed in the instruction, that all(prenominal)thing else did not matter. Candidly, the raison detre or demand for our focus may ca-ca been that we had a boss or t ap ieceer breathing d deliver our get laid or an impending exam was to quantify our level of cognition or password or a naval divisionicular moment necessitated that a skill be learned very quickly.Regardless of the motivating factors for this moment of focussed cultivation, the experience is what psychologists Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi and Ellen Langer label in their respective theories, as moments of optimum flow or hearfulness. tally to psychologist Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi, optimum flow occurs when Alientation binds way to involvement, enjoyment replaces boredom, helplessness turns into a feeling of control, and psychic energy workings to reinforce the sense of self, instead of being lost in the service of external goals. (Czikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 9) Replicating much(prenominal) moments of optimum flow is the job of educators regardless of the domain, whether it be school, the workplace in job training, or the military, etc. Moreover, real acquirement theorists ar advoc ating the greater usage of engine room, namely computers, in erudition situations because they see enormous emf of computer technology to replicate these optimum moments of flow. acquirement is a personal act. We each place our own personal stamp on how we learn, what we learn and when we learn. We in effect sacrifice our own reading style.Howard Gardners speculation of mul circus tentle experiences which acknowledges tuition as an holistic experience is, at present, one of the most well cognise descriptors of humanity cognitive profiles. The act of knowledge is paradoxical in nature. It chiffonier at times break through to be a very simple act. So simple, that we do not question its battlefront in how we go about our daily activities, for it is natural to our populace as learning organisms. Yet, when we encounter difficulties in learning something, we no longer take the learning surgery for granted. It is only then that our metacognition or aw arness of how we l earn is h eightsomeened. discipline is taken for granted as a natural appendage. As simple a execute it may seem, the root of to a lower placestanding how we learn is not as straight forth. The existence of numerous translations and theories of learning attest to the complexness of this mold. A random sampling of any instructional psychology text pull up stakes illustrate the variance in views to what exactly is learning and how we do learn. In Educational Psychology An Introduction, for example, the authors write, Learning implies a change in the individual as a result of some intervention. It may be viewed as an outcome or as a process. (Belkin and Gray, 1977, p. 211) While this definition reflects a behaviorist view of learning, for it equates learning as an outcome, it is a starting point for the authors to expand their description of learning into umpteen some other realms, namely the contrary theories of learning. They in effect, devote a whole chapter of their te xt just to withdraw the many a(prenominal) ways of defining learning. While it may seem somewhat premature to prize the aforementioned definition of learning and to equate it with a specific scheme, it is authoritative to recognize that intervention in the learning process hatful imply many different things.The degree of intervention, by who or what and how, are the defining factors of a learning hypothesis. These factors help distinguish the many different theories. As you leave alone see these theories are not stagnant. They are evolving and changing as we discover refreshed ways of viewing human cognition. The mechanistic exercise of the mind of the behavior era has given way to the logical-computational stumper favored by artificial intelligence and cognitive science theorists (McLellan, 1996, p. 6). Don Tapscott, in his book Growing Up Digital The Rise of the lucre Generation, argues that we are now in a digital era of learning.According to Tapscott, a transformation in learning is taking place from what he labels broadcast learning to inter nimble learning. No longer are todays generation of learners satisfied in being the passive recipients of the traditional direction process, quite an, they want to discover it for themselves by becoming interactive with the learning. The net generation children using GlobaLearn a web site, are beginning to process education and learn differently than the boomers before them.New media as well asls offer great promise for a new model of learning one based on discovery and relegateicipation. (Tapscott, 1998, p. 127) Tapscotts thesis that the technological revolution is permeating every aspect of our lives forces us to turn out the use of computer technology as learning devices. Such fast social, economic and general lifestyle change, due in essence to the technological revolution, begs the question based on learning theory, why does the use of computers as a learning tool make sense?This chapter exit answer this question by profiling the many learning theories. pic The Spectrum of Learning Theories As a look back of the literature of learning theories will illustrate on that point are many labels being utilize to describe the many theories. Moreover, there are many theorists coadjutord with each approach. A categorization of these labels and theorists will help in understanding these fundamental theories. The spectrum of learning theories consists of many approaches or ways of explaining how humans learn.A description of each of these theories will suffice in providing you with enough knowledge to smallly examine the use of computer technology as a learning device. The resume of each theory will consist of the associated names of the theory a description of the theory theorists associated with the theory hyperlinks on the World Wide electronic network Diagram 1 The two extremes behaviorism Constructivism The extremes of this learning theory spectrum are represent ed by respectively, the Behaviorist and Constructivist theories of learning.As theories stressful to explain the same thing, they are bipolar based on their respective views of how knowledge is acquired and the intervention of tools of learning (teachers or instructors). As a context to better understand all of the theories of learning presented in this chapter, examine these two extremes first and then place the remaining theories onto the spectrum. pic Behaviorism The Associated Names of this Theory Behaviorism labeled as a learn approach is often resuscitatered to as directed instruction.As you compare this theory with the Constructivist view of learning, this label will become self-evident. Also in contrast to Constructivism, it has been labelled an objectivist theory of learning. Theorists associated with Behaviorism J. B Watson E. L Thorndike B. F Skinner A comment of Behaviorism The concern or speech pattern of Behaviorism is discernable indicators that learning is takin g place. Contrasting this view of learning is the emphasis of cognitive psychologists who equate learning with the mental processes of the mind.Behaviorists do not deny the existence of these mental processes. In fact, they acknowledge their existence as an unobservable indication of learning. The focus of Behaviorism is on the conditioning of observable human behavior. J. B Watson, the father of Behaviorism, defined learning as a sequence of stimulus and rejoinder actions in observable cause and effect relationships. The behaviorists example of classical conditioning demonstrates the process whereby a human learns to respond to a neutral stimulus in such a manner that would typically be associated with an unconditioned stimulus.The accompaniment example often cited with classical conditioning is the case of Pavlovs dog. The focus of Pavlovs experiment was the digestive process in animals. In conducting the experiment, Pavlov noticed that the dog would salivate (response), upon hearing the ringing of a bell. This occurred because the dog had learned to associate its unconditional stimuli (normally feeding), with the neutral stimuli of the bell ringing simultaneously with the feeding process. Watson, believed that the stimuli that humans ascertain may be generated inherently (for example hunger), or externally (for example, a loud noise).B. F. Skinner expanded on the knowledge skill of Behaviorism, established by Watson, and on the work of Edward Thorndike, by focussing on operant conditioning. According to Skinner, unpaid worker or automatic behavior is either strengthened or weakened by the immediate presence of a reward or a punishment. The learning principle shtup operant conditioning is that new learning occurs as a result of positive reinforcement, and old patterns are abandoned as a result of negative reinforcement. (Belkin and Gray, 1977, p. 9) In his book entitled, The Technology of Teaching, Skinner wrote The application of operant conditioni ng to education is simple and direct. Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement under which students learn. They learn without teaching in their natural environments, solely teachers arrange special contingencies which expedite learning, hastening the appearance of behavior which would otherwise be acquired slowly or reservation sure of the appearance of behavior which otherwise never occur. (Skinner, 1968, p. 4) Skinner believed that much complex learning could be achieved by this process of contingencies and reinforcement through successive shows in the shaping process, the contingencies of reinforcement being changed progressively in the direction of the required behavior. (Skinner, 1968, p. 10) Applying the theoretical principles of Behaviorism to learning environments, it is easy to recognize that we fuddle many behaviorist artifacts in our learning solid ground. A dissection of the traditional teaching approaches used for years would reveal the sin ewy influence that Behaviorists meet had on learning.The concept of directed instruction, whereby a teacher is providing the knowledge to the students either promptly or through the set up of contingencies, is an excellent example of the Behaviorist model of learning. The use of exams to pecker observable behavior of learning, the use of rewards and punishments in our school systems, and the breaking rase of the instruction process into conditions of learning (as developed by Robert Gagne), are all further examples of the Behaviorist influence. With the advent of the computer in school, C. A.I. , or computer-assisted instruction has become a prominent tool for teaching, because from a Behaviorist perspective, it is an effective way of learning. CAI uses the physical exercise and practice approach to learning new concepts or skills. The question acting as the stimulus, elicits a response from the user. Based on the response a reward may be provided. The contingencies of learning are translated into different levels of the program. Rewarding the user to a different level for correct responses follows exactly the approach of operant conditioning.Educators have espoused CAI as an effective teaching approach because it furnishs for self-paced instruction and it liberates them from the direct instruction of all their students so as to focus on those students with particular get hold ofs. Hyperlinks to Behaviorist Web Pages http//www. coe. uh. edu/srmehall/theory/theory. hypertext markup language http//tecfa. unige. ch/edu-comp/edu-s94/contrib/schneider/learn. fm. htmlREF13085 http//www. sil. org/lingualinks/library/literacy/fre371/vao443/TKS2569/tks347/tks734/ http//mse. byu. edu/ipt301/jordan/learnterm_b. html pic Constructivism The Associated Names of this TheoryConstructivsm is recognized as a unique learning theory in itself. It however, may be associated with cognitive psychology because as a theory of learning it focuses on a learners capability to me ntally construct meaning of their own environment and to create their own learning. As a teaching practice it is associated with different degrees of non-directed learning. The term constructivsm is linked to Cognitive and Social Constructivsm. Theorists associated with Constuctivism John Dewey Lev Vygotsky Jean Piaget Jerome Bruner Seymour Papert Mitchell Resnick A Description of ConstructivismThe merits of Behaviorist learning theory and of their teaching practices are well documented. They have served well in teaching a developing North Ameri seat population over the past six decades. Behavioral learning theory manifested itself in creating a systematic approach to teaching. Robert Gagne and Leslie Briggs, in their book, Principles of Instructional Design, combined Behaviorist principles of learning with a cognitive theory of learning named Information-Processing. The focus of the latter theory in this combination was of the internal processing that occurred during a learning mo ment.The design of instruction must be undertaken with suitable attention to the conditions under which learning occurs. With reference to the learner, learning conditions are both external and internal. These conditions are in turn mutually beneficial upon what is being learned. How can these fundamental sentiments be used to design instruction ? How can they be utilize to the design of single lessons, of courses, and of entire systems of instructions ? (Gagne and Briggs, 1974, p. 14) Gagne and Briggs principles of instructional design broke mass the teaching process into a systematic process of nine steps.It is in effect, this type of systematic approach to teaching that acted as the catalyst for the creation of another view of the way humans learn. Behaviorist learning theory had served its purpose and its approach and goals were becoming outdated according to Constructivists like Seymour Papert. Constructivist learning theory sought to improve on what Behaviorist learning t heory had already established by focussing on the motivation and ability for humans to construct learning for themselves. It viewed Behaviorism as being too teacher centered and directed.Constructivists regarded the educational system as a process of matching skill objectives with test items. It was void of meaningful learning. They excessively saw the teaching process focus too much on individual work rather than on group work. The final critique of Behaviorist learning theory from the Constructivist perspective helped define the amount of Constructivism. To imply that knowledge is separate to the human mind and that it must be transferred to the learner in a teacher centered approach fundamentally was counter to the Constructivist theory of learning.Constructivists believe that all humans have the ability to construct knowledge in their own minds through a process of discovery and problem-solving. The tip to which this process can take place naturally, without structure and tea ching is the defining factor amongst those who advocate this learning theory. Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, observed human development as progressive stages of cognitive development. His intravenous feeding stages, which commence at infancy and progress into adulthood, characterize the cognitive abilities necessary at each stage to construct meaning of ones environment.Seymour Papert, psychologist and modern critique of Behaviorist teaching methods, writes in his book, The Childrens Machine Thus, constructionism, my personal reconstruction of constructivism has as its main feature the fact that it looks more closely than other educational -isms at the idea of mental construction. It attaches special importance to the division of constructions in the world as a support for those in the head, thereby becoming less of a purely mentalist doctrine. (Papert, 1993, p. 42) As the inventor of LOGO, the programming tool for children, Papert too believed that children as learners hav e a natural curiosity to construct meaning of their world. The educational system as Papert saw it was too structured and it stifled this natural curiosity. The means by which children were being taught relegated them to a role of passive recipients of the teaching hence, they were not motivated to construct any learning for themselves. Learning according to Constructivists is a question of motivating an individual to attach new meaning to past cognitive experiences.According to Papert It constuctivsm does not call in question the value of instruction as such. That would be silly Even the didactics (endorsed if not originated by Piaget) that every act of teaching deprives the child of an opportunity for discovery is not a categorical imperative a getst teaching, nevertheless a paradoxically expressed reminder to keep it in check. The constructionist view to teaching is not at all dismissive because it is minimalist the goal is to teach in such a way as to produce the most learni ng for the least teaching.Of course, this cannot be achieved simply by reducing the quantity of teaching while leaving everything unchanged. The principle other necessary change parallels an African proverb If a man is hungry you can give him a fish, but it is better to give him a line and teach him to catch fish himself. (Papert, 1993, p. 139) Paperts desire to have children become motivated learners, critical thinkers, problem-solvers and metacognitionists is to be achieved through educational reform that provides the learner with the necessary tools to participate and to take ownership of the learning process.According to Papert, the computer is the appropriate tool to achieve such desired educational reform. These desired objectives of Papert and others who handle the Constructivist view of learning are coming closer to reality as more people discover the power of computer technology. From Donald Tapscotts perspective, Paperts desired reality is happening now, as a paradigm shi ft to more interactive learning due to the exploitation of the digital media is taking place in our learning institutions.Tapscott cites eight shifts in learning today From linear to hypermedia. From instruction to construction and discovery. From teacher-centered to learner-centered education. From absorbing material to learning how to voyage and how to learn. From school to lifelong learning. From one-size-fits-all to customized learning. From learning as torture as learning as fun. From the teacher as transmitter to the teacher as facilitator. Hyperlinks to Constructivist Web Pages http//www. tcimet. net/mmclass/summer/CHPTales. tm http//www. coe. uh. edu/srmehall/theory/construct. html http//www. gwu. edu/tip/bruner. html http//www. mamamedia. com/areas/grownups/people/seymour. html http//www. mamamedia. com/areas/grownups/home_alt. html http//lynx. dac. neu. edu/home/httpd/t/tjohnson/papert%20history. htm pic Fitting the other Theories onto the Spectrum The two extreme s of the spectrum have been outlined (refer to diagram 2). Inherent within each of these two extremes are think theories. Diagram 2 (Spectrum Summary)Behaviorism Constructivism Directed Instruction Non-directed Instruction Objectivist Constructivist Teacher-centered Learner-centered Behavioral observations Cognitive operations Focus on the individual Group work is emphasized More focussed on one approach More holistic in approach Fundamentally, Constructivism is a cognitive learning theory because of its focus on the mental processes that construct meaning.Other learning theories equated with cognitive psychology are Information-Processing theory, Scaffolding theory (associated with the Russian philosopher Lev Vygotsky) and intelligence-based learning theory (associated with neuroscientists such as Marian Diamond and Robert Sylwester and educator Susan Kovalik). Information-Processing theory regards human learning as being analogous to a computer and its ability to store computer storage. As humans we process information ab initio with our senses. This information is either processed into our short term memory or it is lost. If this information is used and accomplished it is only then put into long term memory. Lev Vygotsky thought that our cognitive development was directly related to our social development.The culture we live in influences our social and cognitive development according to Vygotsky. He further recognized the differences of how the world is seen by children and by adults. Vygotsky labelled this difference in cognitive ability as the zone of proximal development. The job of educators was to identify this zone and to find out where the child was situated in this zone and build upon their specific level through a scaffolding process. Building from what the learner knows is in essence, anchoring the learning on past experience. Such anchoring is fundamental to Constructivist theory of learning. Computer technology is viewed by Seymo ur Papert as an excellent means to anchoring learning to meaningful experiences.The complexity of understanding how humans learn is reflective of our complexity as biological, social and cognitive animals. Many theories exist, all focussing on different aspects of our make-up as humans. Each theory is an start out to explain how we learn, act and behave Sigmund Freud focussed on our sub-conscious, Skinner on our observable behavior, cognitive psychologists on our mental processes, humanistic psychology on our social and interpersonal development. Howard Gardner took a more holistic approach in describing our cognitive profiles. His classification of human intellectual ability into heptad intelligences incorporates many aspects of psychology to define the cognitive behavior of humans.Before moving on to Multiple Intelligences , refer to the following hyperlinks for information on other learning theories. http//mse. byu. edu/ipt301/jordan/learning. html pic Theory of Multiple Intell igences Human intelligence should not be equated solely with linguistic or logical-mathematical intelligence alone, according to Howard Gardner. As the author of a new way of looking at human intelligences, Gardner, a Harvard professor, identified a total of septenary different intelligences that humans may possess. His list includes Linguistic intelligence Logical-mathematical intelligence Spatial intelligence tuneful intelligence Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal intelligence Intrapersonal intelligenceGardner is working on more intelligences that qualify as cognitive processes Multiple intelligences theory, on the other hand, pluralizes the traditional concept(Gardner, 1993, p. 15) Gardners fascination with human intelligence and how the brain works was started with an investigating of people who had experienced brain damage of some sort. He recognized that not all abilities, whether cognitive or motor- afferent, were eliminated from the individuals repertoire despite hav ing endured some form of brain damage. Gardner hypothesized that we possess more than one form of intelligence. The theory of aggregate intelligences provides a more holistic view of the intelligence of humans.Gardner advocates that we may all attempt to develop each of these intelligences to our optimum level. However, we may be more adept in only accepted of these intelligences. We may however, aspire through practice and development to improve in the remaining intelligences. The use of technology appeals to this view of intelligence in that Gardners theory acknowledges that cognition is not a linear process. The computer as a learning tool has enormous potential in developing the different forms of intelligences of Gardners theory. Hyperlinks to Multiple Intelligences Web Pages http//www. athena. ivv. nasa. gov/curric/weather/adptcty/multint. html picLearning Theories and the Brain What is Learning? Learning is the process by which we receive and process sensory data, encode su ch data as memories within the neural structures of our brain, and retrieve those memories for later(prenominal) use. The transformation of information stored within such memories is enormous, including such items as how to control your sphincter muscle until a socially appropriate occasion, how to identify mommy in a crowd, how to ride a bicycle, what is the shortest path to grandmothers house without going near the lair of the wolf, what is the tune for Beethovens Ode to Joy, and what a philosopher means when she says The cat is on the mat. All learning takes place within the brain, and as our understanding of the underlying structures and processes of the brain increases we can begin to apply that knowledge to improve our construction of learning environments. Our ability to describe and understand the basic processes by which our brain learns has been enhanced by recent technological developments and by the accumulation of long-term studies in human and animal populations. Of particular benefit has been the development of brain-imaging techniques that allow us to observe the operation of normal human brains during the performance of a variety of tasks. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and similar technologies have allowed researchers to play neural activity during sensory data processing and monitor the transfer of information into long-term memory.Researchers have also made great strides in determining the basic mechanisms that underlie the transmission of information within the brain. Such research on brain structure, neural transmitters, and the process by which memories are stored and retrieved have allowed the development of neuro-physiological models of learning. Although neuroscience has provided us with an increasingly rich and accurate descriptive theory of learning within the brain, we still need prescriptive theories of how to maximize the efficiency and capacity of human learning. To some extent all learning theories are prescriptive and se ek to minimize the time required to transfer information into memory and maximize the efficiency of retrieving that information.Our current knowledge of the brain, and our speculations regarding the evolutionary function of learning, should assist such prescriptive theories in designing learning environments that provide for maximum learning efficiency. In particular, prescriptive theories informed by our current knowledge of neuroscience should allow us to evaluate the role of multimedia in learning environments. We should also be able to maximize the opposition of multimedia in such environments through application of learning theories and our knowledge of the human brain. Learning environments should not be construed simply as the traditional formal classroom within the context of commit public education. Such environments occur within the workplace, the home, and other social institutions as communication and information technology continues to penetrate Western society.We sho uld also be aware that the use of multimedia will have an impact upon the development of the human brain, particularly when such techniques are used with children and adolescents whose brains are still developing and maturing. pic The Brain The three-pound universe that is our brain consists of more than 100 billion neurons and the associated structures that organize, nourish, and protect their functioning. Each neuron may have amid 5,000 and 50,000 connections to other neurons, forming a dense connective mat that allows the storage of enormous amounts of information. It is important to conceive that structures within the brain continue to develop until late adolescence and that neurons will continue to grow connections to other neurons end-to-end adult life. pic Brain StructuresThe diagram above shows four basic structures in the brain that are important for bodily functions and for learning and memory. The brain stem is primarily concerned with basic survival functions and the regulation of embody systems. The cerebellum is involved in the performance of automatic movement patterns (walking, running, touch-typing, and other physical skills that can become part of automatic procedural memory). The limbic system is responsible for the processing of short-term memory into long-term memory as well as the generation and regulation of emotions. The cerebral cortex is the area of the brain in which sensory data is received and analyzed, decisions are made, and behavioral responses are activated.Information is received from the major sensory organs of the body eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin and is held briefly in sensory memory. The further processing of that information appears to be dependent upon the state of emotional arousal of the brain and the utility of such information for potential survival. semipermanent memories are generated through the growth and spread of neural connections between those modular structures that contain the memory (Sylwester, 1 995, pp. 89-90). The more often such structures are activated and the stronger the connections become to associated structures, the more easily such memories are retrieved and used by the brain in decision making and conscious thought.To some extent the driving forces behind the way our brain processes sensory input and makes decisions are the survival imperatives that accompanied human physical and ethnical evolution. Our brains reflect the importance that survival places upon evaluating potential threat situations, making a quick response, and focusing all body resources on support of those functions that may lead to continued survival. In high-threat situations the focus of the brain will be almost exclusively upon what is identified as the potential threat while the body shuts down relatively unimportant systems to concentrate on those involved in the fight-or-flight response.Low-threat situations allow the brain to sample and evaluate a broader spectrum of sensory input and to analyze such input for future use. Thus a queen-sized looming shadow in the cave mouth tends to generate fear, prompting the body to shut down digestion, kernel more adrenaline, and prepare the cerebellum to handle the process of running while the cerebral cortex looks for places to hide or make a stand. Strong negative emotion tends to evoke the fight-or-flight physiological and mental responses that shut down high-level cognition. A premium should therefor be placed upon the reduction of those factors within a learning environment that give rise to negative emotions.At the same time, sensory input that does not receive attention is not available for processing through short-term into long-term memory. Clearly a poise must be struck between too much and too little stimulation in learning situations. Some stimulation and motivation is necessary for the learner to pay attention to the data that they are required to learn on the other hand too much stimulation (particularly in a ne gative context) is liable to create anger or fear as an emotional response, either of which can serve to reduce the amount of learning carried out within the environment. It appears that the limbic system plays an important part in the process of storing information as long-term memories.Those activities that provide an emotionally supportive environment may well have a positive effect upon the processing of information into long-term storage and subsequent retrieval of those memories. Group activities, co-operative learning, role-playing, and simulations tend to provide emotional support and emotional context for learning. Retrieval of long-term memories is enhanced when a large number of connections have been established between the neural modules that store such memories. To some extent our growing knowledge about the organization of the brain tends to support those theories of learning that can generally be labeled as constructivist. That is, situated knowledge that is connected to a large number of other memories is more apt to be recalled than is unconnected knowledge that has been learned by rote.Because the process of creating connections between ideas and memories is essentially carried out through a process of rehearsal and review, learners should be encouraged to review knowledge that is being learned and attempt to build connections to that knowledge that is already easily retrieved from long-term memory. Such cognitive tools as narration, story-telling, constructing metaphors, and making comparisons are strategies that help to build and maintain connections. The construction of knowledge is essentially the growing of connections between the neural modules that contain individual memories. pic Implications for Learning Theory If the apparent symmetry between contemporary brain-based learning theories and constructivism is accurate, then basic guiding principles of constructivism should be used in designing learning environments.These principles inc lude 1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues around which students are actively essay to construct meaning. 2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. Parts must be tacit in the context of wholes. Therefore the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts. 3. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to understand the world, and the assumptions that support those models. 4. The purpose of learning is to construct ones own meaning, not to have the right answers by repeating someone elses meaning.Learning is inherently inter-disciplinary, and the only valuable assessment of learning is assessment that is part of the learning process and that provides students with information on the quality of their learning. (On Purpose Associates, 1998b) Such learning environments should also be designed around the ideas that come forward from brain-based learning. That is, they shou ld employ the three instructional techniques associated with brain-based learning orchestrated immersion, where learning environments are created that enoughy immerse students in a learning experience relaxed alertness, where an effort is made to eliminate fear while maintaining a exceedingly challenging environment and active processing, where the learner consolidates and internalizes information by actively processing it (On Purpose Associates, 1998a).Learning environments constructed with these principles in mind will tend to be organized around thematic units featuring knowledge in depth and the geographic expedition of projects that have real meaning for the participating learners. pic Implications for Multimedia How should we then use multimedia presentations of information to effectively learn in the context of current brain-based learning theory? The communications and information technology that constitutes contemporary multimedia platforms has some significant advantage s in creating a learning environment, but there are some pitfalls that must be accounted for as part of the learning process. Multimedia, at its best, allows us to receive the real world to the learner through the use of sound and video.Such connection to the real world should serve as a factor in motivating students, and as a factor in providing them with additional connections to other knowledge structures. At the same time, multimedia allows students to experience information through ten-fold modes of presentation. Such multi-modal learning should help to build connections within the learners brain if only because multiple modes of reception will engage different areas of the learners brain. Contemporary multimedia platforms allow a greater degree of learner control and more freedom for the learner to undertake self-directed exploration of the material. Such self-directed learning is likely to be more meaningful and more connected to active knowledge structures within the lear ners brain.Therefore, we should see advantages for learning programs that include multimedia presentations. Learners should also gain from the possibility of self-paced instruction based upon contemporary multimedia learning technology. Whenever possible, immediate feedback should be built into a multimedia program to assist students in forming correct connections prior to reinforcing connections between new and old information incorporated within existing knowledge structures. Designers of multimedia instructional packages should take comfort in the strengths of multimedia, but they should also be aware of potential problems in using multimedia with learners.Although current multimedia technology allows excellent presentation in both video and audio modes, and provides some tactile feedback through the use of keyboards, there is little to offer students who need tactile experience ? multimedia is essentially a bimodal presentation strategy unless additional work is done to prepare material for students. Even the best multimedia programs cannot provide the total stimulation that natural environments provide? we have yet to incorporate smell or taste into such presentations, and tactile sensations are still limited. More importantly, there is a clear risk of exposure that multimedia programs may be used to substitute for interaction with other learners.We should not be seduced by technical virtuosity or cutting-edge visual and aural effects, there is still a need for human interaction and emotional support. Above all else, we should beware of the tendency to substitute passive learning for active learning. Multimedia provides significant advantages in presenting information to learners, particularly if sufficient resources have been invested to create presentations that make full use of current technology. Presentation of information, no matter how technically sophisticated, is not enough learners must interact with content to construct their own meanings and integrate new knowledge into the dense web of neural connections that is mind and memory. pic